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Equal Protection and Constitutional Equality: How the Constitution Limits Discrimination by Government Equal protection is the constitutional principle that government must not arbitrarily treat similarly situated people differently under the law. In the United States, the central constitutional source is the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which provides that no state may “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” The Clause is therefore not a command that Read more

Due Process of Law: Procedural and Substantive Due Process Government does not have unlimited freedom to deprive people of their life, liberty, or property. Under the U.S. Constitution, due process of law places important limits on governmental action. The Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments establish a constitutional principle that government must respect certain legal protections before depriving a person of protected interests. Procedural due process focuses primarily on the fairness of Read more

Constitutional Limits on Government Power Government exists to exercise public authority, but constitutional government is based on a fundamental proposition: government power is not unlimited. A constitution does more than create governmental institutions and give them authority. It also establishes boundaries that those institutions cannot lawfully cross. These boundaries are known as constitutional limits on government power. The central idea is simple: Government may exercise only those powers that the constitutional system permits, and even Read more

Enumerated, Implied, and Inherent Government Powers Government cannot exercise unlimited power simply because a particular action appears useful, necessary, or politically desirable. In a constitutional system, the more fundamental question is where the government’s authority comes from. Government powers can generally be understood through three important categories: enumerated powers, implied powers, and inherent powers. Enumerated powers are powers expressly granted by a constitution or other fundamental legal instrument. Implied powers are powers understood to exist Read more

Constitutional Structure: How a Constitution Organizes Government A constitution does more than declare rights or establish broad political principles. At its most fundamental level, a constitution organizes government. It determines which institutions exist, what powers they possess, how those powers are distributed, how public officials are selected, and what legal limits prevent governmental authority from becoming arbitrary. The basic constitutional structure can therefore be understood as an answer to five questions: Different constitutional systems answer Read more

How to Read a Constitution: A Practical Guide to Constitutional Structure, Language, and Meaning A constitution is not simply a collection of political ideals. It is the foundational legal framework of a state: it establishes institutions, distributes governmental power, imposes legal limits on public authority, and often protects fundamental rights and liberties. To read a constitution properly, therefore, you must learn to read it at several levels at once. You must identify what the words Read more