Pre-Action Protocols: Duties, Proportionality, and Litigation Before Proceedings Introduction Civil litigation in England and Wales does not begin, in practical terms, when a claim form is filed at court. In many disputes, the parties are expected to take a series of steps beforehand to understand the disagreement, exchange relevant information, Read more
Civil Litigation in England and Wales: The Civil Procedure Rules and Overriding Objective Introduction Civil litigation is the legal process through which disputes between individuals, businesses, public bodies, and other organisations are resolved by the courts. Unlike criminal proceedings, which generally concern allegations of criminal offences brought by the state, Read more
Wrongful Convictions and Miscarriages of Justice: Review, Remedies, and Compensation Introduction A criminal conviction is one of the most consequential decisions that a court can make. It may result in imprisonment, financial penalties, restrictions on liberty, professional consequences, reputational damage, and lasting disruption to family and social life. The legitimacy Read more
Appeals Against Conviction and Sentence: The Court of Appeal and Criminal Cases Review Commission Introduction The criminal justice system in England and Wales does not treat a conviction or sentence as immune from challenge once a trial court has delivered its decision. A person who believes that a criminal conviction Read more
Trial by Jury in England and Wales: Jury Selection, Directions, and Verdicts Introduction Trial by jury is one of the most recognisable institutions of the criminal justice system in England and Wales. In cases tried on indictment in the Crown Court, a group of ordinary members of the public is Read more
Evidence in Criminal Trials in England and Wales: Hearsay, Confessions, and Exclusion of Unfair Evidence Introduction Evidence is the foundation on which criminal trials are decided. A prosecution may have a compelling theory about what happened, a defendant may offer an alternative explanation, and investigators may believe that they have Read more
Disclosure in Criminal Proceedings in England and Wales: Prosecution Duties and Defence Rights Introduction Disclosure is one of the most important safeguards in criminal procedure in England and Wales. It governs the information that must be made available to the defence during a criminal investigation and prosecution, particularly material that Read more
Criminal Charging and Allocation in England and Wales: Summary, Either-Way, and Indictable-Only Offences Introduction Criminal charging and allocation are fundamental stages in the criminal justice process in England and Wales. They determine what offence a defendant must answer, the legal basis on which the prosecution proceeds, and the court responsible Read more
Bail and Remand in England and Wales: Pre-Trial Release, Conditions, and Custody Introduction Bail and remand are among the most consequential aspects of criminal procedure in England and Wales. They determine whether a person accused of a criminal offence remains at liberty while criminal proceedings continue or is deprived of Read more
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